A questionnaire on training and management feeding, housing, shoeing was sent to horse-owners with insurance policies on their horses; had claimed insurance compensation for. The results of the proportions in each group were compared with a Chi-squared test.
Results: The results showed significant differences for training-related factors but not for management-related factors. The healthy C-horses were ridden for a longer period of time at each occasion The C-horses jumped once a week and the I-horses 0.
There was a tendency for shorter period of training free weeks to be beneficial C-horses 4. Conclusions: The results indicated that training-related factors were associated with whether a horse remained healthy or not.
Further studies on training and educational systems of young horses are needed to prevent impaired function. Sources of funding: This study was financed by the insurance company 'Agria' which approved submission of the results for presentation and publication in conjunction with ICEEP 9. Introduction: Thoroughbred racehorses often experience periods of detraining due to locomotor disorders and subsequent rehabilitation. We hypothesised that regularly exercising horses at different intensities during a period of detraining would differentially maintain their cardiopulmonary and O2 transport capacities.
Standardised treadmill exercise tests were performed before and after detraining during which cardiopulmonary and O2 transport variables were measured. Results: Mass-specific VO2max, maximal cardiac output and maximal stroke volume of all groups decreased after detraining with no differences between groups. Arterial- mixed-venous O2 concentration difference did not change after detraining in any group, and maximal heart rate decreased in the Wand S groups.
Conclusions: These results suggest it may be possible to identify a minimum threshold exercise intensity or protocol during detraining in horses that maintains significant elements of performance-related variables and minimises reductions in O2 transport capacity. Sources of funding: Japan Racing Association. Introduction: There are few data on training horses used for show jumping SJ in practice. Noted daily were: Minutes of turn-out on pasture, of walking in horse-walker, of lungeing and of specific exercise gymnastics, jumping and others.
Results: The duration of the specific exercises ranged between minutes. These relationships became not significant when groups were analysed separately. Ethical Animal Research: Horse owners gave consent for these procedures within a veterinary monitoring system.
Sources of funding: none declared. Introduction: The aims of the study were to monitor fitness level of young Friesian horses and to assess whether fitness data has a predictive value for the final performance score and whether familial aggregation of response to training could be detected.
There was a large heterogeneity in responsiveness to training;. HR had no predictive value for the performance score, but horses that did not reach the anaerobic threshold in SET-II scored significantly better Conclusions: The present study reports, for the first time in the horse, familial aggregation of HR-response to training.
Ethical Animal Research: Consent was obtained from the owners of all horses. Introduction: Muscle conformation is often discussed among practitioners and it is sometimes suggested that specific training strategies affect muscle conformation. This study attempted to investigate; 1 if it is possible for practitioners to judge whether a horse is subjected to pace training or not based on subjective analysis of hind-end muscle conformation and 2 which terminology practitioners would use when doing this.
Methods: Photos were taken from behind transverse plane in 10 Icelandic horses trained for mounted pace racing and 11 used for riding but not pacing. Body condition score was 7. Three experienced horse practitioners A, B, C were informed that the 21 photos showed horses trained for pace racing and horses not trained as pacers and they were instructed to separate photos into two groups based on their subjective impression of muscle conformation.
The number of cases where all practitioners agreed and grouping also matched pacers and non-pacers were 7. Conclusions: It appears not to be possible to judge whether an Icelandic horse is pace trained based on observations of the hind-end musculature.
The terminology used appeared to refer either to the conformation or to a presumed strength. Sources of funding: Holar University College, Iceland. Functional evaluation of MM horses is performed in. The aim of this work was to test a training protocol to prepare MM horses for marcha competition. Methods: Eight untrained MM mares, in randomized blocks with Split plots, were trained for 84 days. Before training and every 21 days a marcha test MT was performed, totaling 5 tests in the experimental period.
Every 10 min heart rate HR and blood lactate concentration [La] were recorded. Individual time used for training was 10 min less than the exercising time in the previous MT. Regression was used to analyze the results. There was not an increase in marcha time on test 5. Conclusions: MM mares trained for 63 days with the described protocol are ready to compete in marcha competition. Introduction: The effects of different amounts of training on performance of young horses have not yet been studied in a long term perspective.
The aim of this study was therefore to assess the effect on VLa4 of two training programs performed from the age of 2 to 3 in Standardbred horses. After 14 months, a VLa4-test was performed on a track 4 x m. Blood samples were collected after each interval and lactate concentration was determined using Lactate Pro. Exponential regression analysis of speed and lactate concentration were used to estimate individual VLa4.
Results: There was no difference in VLa4 between the control and reduced exercise group Ethical Animal Research: The study was approved by the local ethics committee in Umea. Introduction: There is relatively little information concerning physiological factors affecting show-jumping performance.
This study examined the relationship between show-jumping exercise, muscle soreness, serum muscle enzyme activity and blood lactate concentration. Methods: Ten mixed breed horses 9. Riders received coaching during warm-up and after jumping a 15 fence course 1. Veterinary and physiotherapy assessments of muscle soreness were performed daily before and after exercise. An international coach graded jumping technique.
Blood was obtained before and on two occasions after jumping 1 minute, two hours for measurement of serum CK and AST, and blood lactate concentration. Conclusions: Horses with higher blood lactate concentrations after jumping demonstrated decreased jumping performance and were more likely to display muscle soreness.
Therefore, two field studies were performed to examine the possibility of avoiding decline in VLa4 with this type of exercise. Methods: Study 1 6 horses were submitted to the same exercise as above once per week during the first 2 weeks of a conditioning period CP adding one interval in each exercise session every 2 weeks for the following 6 weeks.
Study 2 6 horses did the same as horses in study 1 plus once per week an exercise bout at their individual VLa2 during 35 minutes. Before, every 2 weeks during, and 2 weeks after the CP, horses were subjected to standardized exercise tests to determine their VLa4 and VLa2 where convenient and maximal speed speedmax.
The effect of conditioning on VLa4 and speedmax was examined using two-way repeated measures analysis of variance and Fisher's test. Introduction: Eventing is a challenging equestrian discipline. Insight into causes of wastage and withdrawal from competition is essential foranimal welfare and economic reasons. Methods: Twenty-nine animals selected for the European Championship EC in 9 ponies and 20 horses were followed prospectively monitoringfitness using standardized exercise tests.
Causes ofwithdrawal were noted. Data were analyzed using logistic-regression, likely-ratio-tests, Fisher-exact-test, general-linear-model and Chi-square tests as appropriate.
GP at the beginning of the season were less likely to become injured than AP. HRpeak during condition training showed predictive value for future injuries. Ethical Animal Research: Owners gave consent for horses to participate in the study. Introduction: The objective of this study was to determine if yearlings would have higher oxidative stress and lower antioxidant status than mature mares after a single bout of intense exercise before and after training.
Blood samples and middle gluteal muscle samples were taken before and after exercise, and throughout recovery. Plasma cortisol, creatine kinase and muscle glutathione peroxidase had little difference with age or training. Conclusions: Prior to training, the yearlings had lower lipid peroxidation and higher antioxidants than the mares.
Training reduced oxidative stress and improved antioxidant status in the mares, while few effects of training were seen in the yearlings. This suggests that age is an important defense against exercise-induced oxidative stress. Riders received coaching during WU and afterjumping a 15 fence 1. Riderglobal-positioning-system recorded speed. Paired Students T-tests were used to compare variables between days, as well as WU and course.
During WU, there was marked canter lead, jump landing and leaving lead limb asymmetry left canter lead predominating in all cases. There was no preference in canter lead when approaching WU fences.
Conclusions: Results provide preliminary information on WU duration, and suggest that showjumping horses may WU asymmetrically, predominately on the left rein, at competitions and during training. This could have implications for injury risk to a particularforelimb or hindlimb in showjumping horses. Introduction: Fatalities are recognized as a consequence of prolonged endurance exercise but data documenting incidence and causes is limited. Annual incidence rates were calculated and odds ratios for region and ride length were determined.
Results: From there were , horse starts in AERC sanctioned rides and 67 fatalities attributable to the demands of endurance exercise were documented. Horses competing in the Central and Midwest regions appeared at lesser risk, while those in the Southwest and Northeast regions appeared at greater risk, but low numbers of fatalities precluded reaching statistical significance.
In contrast, the risk of fatality was 2 1 fatality per 3, starts and 12 1 fatality per starts times more likely for participation in 80 and km rides, as compared to competition in Limited Distance 40 to 56 km rides 1 fatality per 8, starts.
Conclusions: Overall fatality rates were low; however, risk increased with ride distance. Acute abdominal pain was the most common clinical presentation.
Competing interests: Dr. Introduction: Blood is often collected from performing poorly horses to measure blood variables that may indicate a reason. However, intense exercise affects many blood variables and therefore time of sampling can affect the interpretation of results. This study examined the behaviour of blood variables after racing to determine the magnitude of the changes and to determine when it is better to collect samples.
Methods: Blood was sampled in 17 Standardbred racehorses 3 and 2 days before as well as 2 and 3 days after racing. The other variables were not affected. Conclusions: Some slight but significant changes in blood variables have to be taken in account when interpreting biochemical and haematologic variables for poor performance diagnosis in Standardbreds.
It seems preferable to take blood samples on the third day after racing than on the second day. Introduction: Human athletes have been characterized as either'good drinkers' or 'poor drinkers' on the basis of voluntary water intake during and after endurance exercise.
Similarly, riders of endurance horses have described some horses to be better drinkers than others; however, there are no data in horses to substantiate these claims. Methods: Voluntary fluid intake FI by twenty four 2-year-old Arabian horses that performed km of treadmill exercise in four experiments was recorded. All horses were raised similarly and had no training except a 12 week conditioning period before each experiment.
Mean FI intake each. FI was also correlated to body weight BW loss at the end of the exercise test. FI was inversely correlated with BW loss R values between Conclusions: These data, in groups of young, similarly trained horses, are the first to support that there are innate differences in voluntary drinking during and after endurance exercise in this species. Introduction: Polo is a popular sport; teams compete in matches comprising chukkas, each between minutes.
Players commonly change ponies between chukkas, but changing within a chukka, known as 'half-chukkering' is permitted. This is believed to 'save' the horse by preventing fatigue and facilitating recovery. This study evaluated the impact of half versus full chukka playing strategies in low goal polo; team handicap goals.
ANOVA analyses investigated HR variation during recovery between ponies playing full-chukkas and the 2nd half-chukka period, and within the two half-chukkas played. Conclusions: Playing strategies influence cardiovascular recovery; full-chukka ponies recover faster than those playing in consecutive half-chukkas.
Preparation of half-chukka ponies may predispose to reduced fitness levels compared to full-chukka ponies. Implementing a full-chukka playing strategy is advocated to optimise pony welfare and performance in low-goal polo. Introduction: In humans, oxygen consumption VO2 and heart rate HR are commonly used to assess energy expenditure EE during exercise in field conditions. We hypothesized that the estimation of EE from HR measurements could be a relevant parameter to estimate EE during submaximal field exercise.
Then they undertook a submaximal exercise bout EX over m during 3. Means were compared using a Student's t test. Conclusions: We found no significant difference between the two methods for estimating EE of submaximal exercise. This suggests that the prediction of EE from HR monitoring might be used to evaluate EE of moderate intensity workouts. Ethical Animal Research: The project was conducted under the ethics committee approval B Introduction: Swedish Standardbred trotters are usually not clipped during the cold season but routinely showered and blanketed after exercise.
Yet, the effects on heat dissipation have not been thoroughly studied. Methods: Six Standardbred geldings were tested during three consecutive days, acting as their own control when: 1 showered, 2 showered and blanketed, 3 neither showered nor blanketed.
The exercise consisted of 20 min trot maximum heart rate bpm , preceded and followed by 5 min walk. Rectal- RT and skin temperature ST , respiration rate RR and heart rate HR were recorded: before exercise in the horses' boxes, after harnessing, after 5 min walk, at stops during four sequences of low and high intensity trotting, after 5 min walk stable aisle , after showering and blanketing and at intervals of min during recovery in boxes until one hour after exercise.
Blankets remained on horses until test completion. Ambient temperature was 7. Showering also decreased ST of the hind leg Conclusions: In conclusion, showering is efficient for cooling down whereas blanketing compromised heat dissipation. Sources of funding: Stiftelsen Hastforskning. Introduction: The most frequently reported causes of gastric ulcers in horses are fasting, type of feed and management, and the administration of some drugs.
More recently, physical exercise has also been pointed out as an important factor in the development of gastric lesions in athletic horses. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether treadmill exercise predisposes to the occurrence of gastric ulcers in horses.
Methods: Five Arabian horses were exercised on a high-speed treadmill during twelve weeks. The animals were submitted to gastroscopy before the beginning and the end of the training period. The lesions were classified according to the method proposed by Macallister [1] that assigns scores for number and severity of injuries, with modifications to give a total score for the stomach, considering not only the presence and severity of ulcers, but also otherfindings as gastritis, hyperkeratosis, desquamation of the mucosa.
Results: In the first gastroscopy two animals had very low scores for lesion number and severity and three horses had no injury. In contrast, in the second evaluation, all animals had higher scores. A significant difference was observed between the two periods before and after training considering both methods of gastric lesion classification. Conclusions: We concluded that Arabian horses exercised on a treadmill may develop gastric lesions.
The possible influence of these lesions on athletic performance and other parameters should be considered by researchers who study equine exercise physiology. A scoring system for gastric ulcers in the horse. Equine Vet J, , 29 6 , The SET consisted of a warm-up, followed by 15 4 yo , 30 5 yo. The velocities at which HR reached and beats per minute V and V were calculated by the linear regression of HR versus speed. Results: All horses were able to complete the SET. HR and velocities during the SET did not vary significantly with age.
These values perfectly fit with those described previously for adult endurance horses. Conclusions: The proposed field SET involved both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism reproducing the progress of an endurance race.
Further studies are being conducted to discriminate if possible the effects of age from those of conditioning. Spooner mtsu. Introduction: Horses have a large intestinal reserve of water and electrolytes that can be absorbed to replace sweat fluid losses during endurance exercise.
As a consequence, the abdomen develops a "tucked-up" appearance; however, data documenting changes in abdominal circumference during endurance exercise are lacking. Methods: Abdominal circumference was measured directly in triplicate with a measurement tape to nearest cm every km at three sites front, middle, and back in six 2-year-old Arabian horses that completed four km bouts of treadmill exercise.
Results: Abdominal circumference decreased at all three sites during the exercise test 1. Changes in abdominal circumference during each step of the exercise test were significantly correlated with BW changes Rvalues 0.
Conclusions: These data support the clinical observation that the abdomen decreases in size during endurance exercise and that the largest changes are observed in the earlier stages of exercise, similar to the initial greater decrease in BW that has been documented in several studies during the initial half of endurance competitions.
Introduction: In an official breed evaluation field test BEFT for Icelandic horses, gaits are scored from and there is an option forjudges to add standardized comments on the gaits. The aim of this study was to test if comments given on pace were related to horses' plasma lactate concentration Lac post BEFT, with the hypothesis that some of the comments would be related to Lac. Venous blood samples were obtained afterexercise and lactate concentration determined.
Judges' comments were obtained from Worldfengur. The comments that could be given were: 'good speed', 'clear beat', 'sure', 'big movements', 'good suspension', 'long strides' positive comments ; and 'lack of speed', 'unsure', 'four-beat', 'short strides', 'changing gait' and 'jumping out of gait' negative comments.
Results: Lac was higher when pace had comments 'good speed' and 'sure' than when no comment was given No other significant effects on Lac were observed. Conclusions: Horses with pace subjectively judged as fast and 'sure' had higher blood lactate concentration indicating that successful pace is more anaerobic than less successful pace.
Introduction: The aim of this study was to describe the response in heart rate, respiratory rate, rectal temperature, hematocrit and plasma lactate concentration in Icelandic horses performing the riding assessment in an official breed evaluation field test BEFT in Iceland April It was hypothesized that the riding assessment constituted high intensity exercise.
Horses were judged for riding abilities all gaits on a straight track. Respiratory rate and rectal temperature were recorded and blood samples were taken from the jugular vein before the warm-up and within 5 min after the riding assessment.
Hematocrit was analysed by. Velocity, distance and heart rate were recorded Polar, Kempele, Finland during the riding assessment. Results: The distance covered was 2. Post-exercise plasma lactate concentration was Conclusions: The physiological responses indicate that the riding assessment in BEFT is a demanding exercise, requiring some contribution of anaerobic metabolism.
Owners and trainers were informed that participation was voluntary. Introduction: In equestrian sports where horses exercise at submaximal levels, the identification of some clinical conditions leading to poor performance can remain difficult. The aim of this study was to design a graded exercise test, applicable in the field and to test the hypothesis that measured heart rate HR and lactate LA differ between healthy and subclinically-affected horses, according to diagnosis.
Methods: Fifty-four sport horses regularly participating in competitions were studied. A total of examinations were performed, 85 were poor performance investigations PP and 21 were controls C in healthy performing individuals.
The exercise test consisted of 4 consecutive 2-minute steps, 2 at trot and 2 at canter. Blood samples, tracheal wash and bronchoalveolar lavage were systematically collected. Other examinations were performed when indicated. Repeatability was checked in 12 horses. Results: Tests were highly reproducible.
The rate of increase in LA and HR varied according to diagnosis, with LA reaching significantly higher values in horses affected with cardio-respiratory conditions. Conclusions: Field exercise testing in sport horses during the competitive season is a simple procedure that allows an objective measurement of the horse's capacity to exercise. The analysis of HR and LA provides indications for specific diagnostic examinations and helps assess the functional impairment caused by subclinical disease.
Horse owners referred their horses and consented to all procedures described. Introduction: Racehorses suffering from subclinical diseases are frequently kept in training until they fail expectations during competition. The diagnosis of medical causes of poor performance remains challenging in the field. The aim of this study was to estimate the prevalence of subclinical causes of poor performance in working Thoroughbreds TB and to determine which clinical field tests could most appropriately identify them.
Methods: During the course of a training session, a complete clinical screening was performed in 11 healthy controls C and 38 poor performing PP TB without obvious clinical signs. Results: Subclinical causes of PP included muscular, respiratory and cardiac disorders. Variables derived from velocity and HR showed significant differences between groups. Supra- or ventricular premature beats were present only in the PP group but were not associated with echocardiographic abnormalities.
Glutathione peroxidase activity was significantly lower in PP. Conclusions: Velocity, ECG and HR monitoring during a training session can be used as non-specific predictive indicators of performance, help assess functional consequences of diseases and guide ancillary diagnostic investigations.
Arterial and mixed-venous blood was sampled, and biopsies collected from gluteal muscles at fatigue. Whole blood wb arteriovenous difference across the muscle a-v of.
Results: Duration of exercise to fatigue was not affected by Acz. Acz decreased a-v[SID]wb Con 6. Introduction: Arabian horses have the best records in long distance endurance racing km.
The endurance horses are interesting models to calculate the heritability h2 of exercise ability. In human athletes, heritability of physiological traits calculated using twin design were 0.
Heritabilities of 0. The aim of this study was to calculate the heritability of recovery heart rate, cardiac recovery time and average speed in long distance endurance racing. Methods: The results of endurance races km from to were analyzed.
The database included horses of known pedigrees representing sires with a mean of The data were analyzed using Restricted Estimator of Maximal Likelihood REML, VCE6 method with animal mixed model including country, ride distance, age, gender, common environment as fixed effects and animal genetic as random effect.
Results: Heritabilities SE were 0. Conclusions: The speed and heart rate recovery seem more influenced by training and environmental effects than the cardiac recovery time which is more influenced by genetics. This high heritability is consistent with heritability of V found in French Trotter population previously and may indicate a putative quantitative trait linkage.
Introduction: Alkalinizing agents have been given to horses before exercise to provide exogenous buffering effects. The objective of this experiment was to determine the intra- and inter-day variability of resting plasma tCO2. The hypothesis was that tCO2 would vary measurably during a multi-day quarantine. Methods: Eight acclimated sedentary horses had jugularvenous samples collected into ml heparinized evacuated glass tubes 3 times daily 7 AM, 11 AM, and 3 PM for 5 consecutive days.
Horses ate 5. Plasma tCO2 was determined within hours of sampling using an automated chemistry analyzer.
Mean tCO2 for all 8 horses was calculated for each of the 15 sampling intervals. Results: Mean tCO2 over the 15 sampling intervals ranged from Individual plasma tCO2 ranged over4-to-7 units low 26, high 34, widest range , narrowest Accessed December 21, HIV surveillance annual report Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med.
Adherence to HIV treatment regimens: systematic literature review and meta-analysis. Patient Prefer Adher. Article Google Scholar. Understanding cross-sectional racial, ethnic, and gender disparities in antiretroviral use and viral suppression among HIV patients in the United States.
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Hazardous alcohol use: a risk factor for non-adherence and lack of suppression in HIV infection. Drug use patterns associated with risk of non-adherence to antiretroviral therapy among HIV-positive illicit drug users in a Canadian setting: a longitudinal analysis. BMC Infect Dis. Injection drug network characteristics are important markers of HIV risk behavior and lack of viral suppression. HIV-infected individuals who use alcohol and other drugs, and virologic suppression.
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Alcohol Clin Exp Res. Ethanol inhibits early events in T-lymphocyte activation. Clin Immunol Immunopathol. Increased human immunodeficiency virus type 1 replication in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells induced by ethanol: potential immunopathogenic mechanisms. J Infect Dis. Motivational interviewing. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. Pages Intercultural Relations and Ethnic Conflict in Asia , , Many geographically diverse regions in the world contain a rich variety of cultures within them.
While some have many so 99 6MB Read more. In relation to the others susceptible species, G. There was a gap of 30 years in its record and until now its presence in other regions was not reported. Galba truncatula is also susceptible to F. Lymnaea rupestris was only described and found in one locality and there is no information about its susceptibility. Due to these facts, the role in the transmission of fasciolosis of the species above mentioned remains unknown.
In the present study, it was possible to observe the occurrence of P. Rev Bras Parasitol Vet. Some environmental and climatic factors in the South region provide favorable habitats for the intermediate host snails of F.
These habitats, as shown by UENO et al. Fascioliasis problems in ruminants in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Vet Parasitol. Despite the great efforts made by research groups, some important issues related to the nature and precision of the presence of lymnaeid species in Brazil need to be considered when interpreting our findings. The complete distribution of intermediate host snails of F.
Other restraining factors include the insufficient number of researchers involved in the taxonomy area, which may cause difficulties in identifying the snails at a species level due to the confusing taxonomic situation of the Lymnaeidae family.
The identification of specimens is important since knowing the species that act as intermediate hosts in a particular area, we can define priority strategies regarding intermediate hosts biology to control fasciolosis. Another important point concerns the validity of the species identification used from the literature data and malacological collections due to systematics confusion of lymnaeids snails. This identification is essential in order to justify the distribution of lymnaeid species in Brazil.
Regarding L. However, this is not the case regarding the three other remaining species, G. Characterisation of Lymnaea cubensis, L.
Ann Trop Med Parasitol. Bridging gaps in the molecular phylogeny of the Lymnaeidae Gastropoda: Pulmonata , vectors of Fascioliasis. BMC Evol Biol. Lack of molluscan host diversity and the transmission of an emerging parasitic disease in Bolivia. Mol Ecol. Anatomical studies of sibling species within neotropical lymnaeids, snail intermediate hosts of fascioliasis. In our literature search we identified only 19 localities where the specific identification might be a concern 10 localities with G.
Only in the occurrence of G. Studies on the lymnaeid fauna should be increased all over Brazil, mainly where the information is scarce or nonexistent, with the objective to learn more about the spatial distribution of the intermediate host snail of F.
The methodology used and the intermediate host snail final maps could be useful in identifying priority areas for control interventions of fasciolosis, so that limited resources could be allocated most effectively. We thank Dr. Jean Pierre Pointier, University of Perpignan, France, for their important suggestions on the manuscript. Abrir menu Brasil.
Abrir menu. Lymnaeids; Fasciolosis; Spatial distribution; Snails; Brazil. Table 1 Distribution of Pseudosuccinea columella per municipalities and regions of Brazil.
Table 2 Distribution of Galba viatrix , G. Rev Biol Cien Terra. Agudo AI. Intermediate host mollusks Gastropoda: Pulmonata of parasitic diseases in Santa Catarina's State, Southern Brazil, with inclusion of new records to add to regional inventory. Exotic isolated occurrence of the mussel naiad Leila blainvilleana Lea, in a freshwater coastal lagoon of the Santa Catarina Island, Southern Brazil.
Comun Soc Malacol Urug. Almeida BR. Human fascioliasis in The Metropolitan Area of Curitiba, Brazil - Evaluation of the foci of infection and report of nine cases treated with triclabendazole.
Braz J Infect Dis. Rev Patol Trop. Baker FC.
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