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Students and academicians, especially those focusing on Swift programming, computer science and software development. What is inside the book? The aim is to help them the individuals who developed the language, how the Swift compiler works. The reader has been guided on what they require so as to program in Swift.
The author has then discussed the basics of Swift including writing comments, writing and running the first Swift program, Swift syntax, etc. The various features provided by Swift have been discussed in depth, including data types, variables, constants, loops, decision making, functions, operators, object oriented programming features, etc.
The author has organized the book into chapters, with each chapter having many sub-chapters. Swift codes have been added, alongside thorough explanations of the code and images showing the expected output upon the execution of every script.
The author begins with the basics of Swift and ends by discussing the complex features provided by the programming language. A step-by-step approach has been employed in every chapter for ease of understanding. When debugging compile errors, remember to simply start with the first error, shown next, which tells me that I have an error right before the printf function.
You will find that after solving the first error, many of the remaining errors no longer exist. This type of parse error can be generated for a couple of reasons. In addition to missing program block identifiers, parse errors can occur because of missing statement terminators semicolons.
Can you see where the bug exists? Parse errors occur because the C compiler is unable to determine the end of a program statement such as print statement. In the example shown in Figure 1. Common Error 3: Invalid Preprocessor Directives If you type an invalid preprocessor directive, such as misspelling a library name, you will receive an error message similar to Figure 1.
The following program block with a misspelled library name in the preprocessor directive caused the error generated in Figure 1.
Can you see the error? The library name for standard input output should be spelled stdio. Common Error 4: Invalid Escape Sequences When using escape sequences it is common to use invalid characters or invalid character sequences.
For example, Figure 1. Specifically, it notes that the error is on line 7 and that it is an unknown escape sequence. Can you identify the invalid escape sequence in the following program? Common Error 5: Invalid Comment Blocks As mentioned earlier in the comment section of this chapter, invalid comment blocks can generate compile errors, as shown in Figure 1. Study the nano Quick Guide as described in Appendix C. Create a program that prints your name.
Write a program that prints a diamond as demonstrated next. Create a calendar program using the current month similar to the one shown in Figure 1. In addition to beginning data types, you will also learn how to display variable contents using the printf function and to manipulate data stored in variables using basic arithmetic. In Chapters 10 and 11, you will learn how to use nonvolatile memory for storing data.
Volatile memory loses its data when power is removed from the computer. RAM is comprised of fixed-size cells with each cell number referenced through an address. Programmers commonly reference memory cells through the use of variables. There are many types of variables, depending on the programming language, but all variables share similar characteristics, as described in Table 2.
The hexadecimal numbering system is sometimes used in advanced C programming to reference concise memory addresses, such as during system-level programming.
Integer data types hold a maximum of four bytes of information and are declared with the int short for integer keyword, as shown in the following line of code. Remember from Chapter 1 that executable program statements such as a print statement or in this case a variable declaration require a statement terminator ;.
Floating-Point Numbers Floating-point numbers are all numbers, including signed and unsigned decimal and fractional numbers. Signed numbers include positive and negative numbers whereas unsigned numbers can only include positive values. Examples of floating-point numbers are shown in the following list. Characters Character data types are representations of integer values known as character codes.
For example, the character code 90 represents the letter Z. Note that the letter Z is not the same as the character code , which represents the letter z lowercase letter z. In all, there are a total of common character codes 0 through , which make up the most commonly used characters of a keyboard.
In C, character variables are created using the char short for character keyword as demonstrated next. It is never safe to assume that the newly assigned variable location is empty. To prevent unwanted data from appearing in your newly created variables, initialize the new variables, as shown below. After creating the two variables, I initialize them to a particular value.
Notice that in the character variable data assignment I enclosed the NULL character in single quotes. Single quotes are required when assigning data to the character data type. Although NULL data types are a common computer science concept, they can be confusing. Essentially, NULL characters are unknown data types stored in a memory location. When assigning data to variables such as variable initialization, the equal sign is not used in a comparative sense.
In other words, you would not say that x equals 0. Rather, programmers say variable x is taking on the value of 0. Remember, when assigning data to variables, such as initializing, you refer to the equal sign as an assignment operator, not a comparison operator. The preceding code is a complete C program that demonstrates many of the topics discussed thus far its output is shown in Figure 2. You can accomplish this seemingly difficult task using character sets known as conversion specifiers.
Table 2. TABLE 2. Each variable displayed using a printf function must be outside the parentheses and separated with a comma ,. The following printf function demonstrates the precision problem. My Initials are M. Notice in the statement below that each variable displayed with the printf function is outside the double quotes and separated with a single comma. They are most commonly used when you need to reuse a common data value without changing it. Constant data values can be of many data types but must be assigned when the constant is first created, as demonstrated next.
Just as a bridge provides function, it can also provide beauty, eye candy for both the structural engineer as well as the traveler. You should stick with a style and convention that allow you or someone else to easily read your code. Once you pick or become comfortable with a programming style, the name of the game is consistency. When learning how to program you should specifically consider at least two areas to develop a consistent programming convention and style.
So what is white space? Philosophically speaking, white space is your programming canvas. A few examples of how white space can be controlled are with braces and indentation. Indentation is a must as it guides your eyes in and out of program control. For example, looking at the following sample main function, your eyes quickly tell you the code inside the function logically belongs to it.
This argument can be settled pretty easily in favor of spaces. The rationale behind this favor is based on the fact that tabs can be set to take up various columns.
Another programmer opening your code might not have the same number of columns set for her tabs and consequently the formatting will be off. Another common question with beginning programmers is how far to indent. Personally, I prefer an indentation of two to four spaces. An indentation of longer than four spaces will eventually lead to lines that are too long. The goal here is to maintain a consistent indentation style that keeps the lines of code on the computer screen. One more thing to consider regarding white space is your brace styles, which are closely tied to your indentation style.
Variable Naming Conventions The following list contains a minimal number of guidelines you should follow when declaring and naming your variables. After identifying your naming standards, the most important process is to stay consistent with those practices throughout each of your programs. TR AP In addition to adhering to a variable naming convention, be cautious not to use reserved characters in your variable names.
Identifying Data Types with a Prefix When working with variables, I tend to choose one of three types of prefixes, as demonstrated next. When I see these variables in my program code, I know instantly what data types they are. Another way of prefixing your integer data types is to use a single-character prefix, as shown in the second variable declarations.
Also, these single-character prefixes work very well when used in conjunction with appropriate upper- and lowercase letters, as discussed in the next section. Now, take a look at the same variables with the same name, only this time without using uppercase characters.
In addition to using uppercase letters for readability, some programmers like to use the underscore character to break up words, as shown in the following code. Constant data types provide another challenge for creating a standard naming convention. Personally, I like the following naming conventions. Notice, though, that I still capitalize the first letter in the constant name for readability purposes.
In the second declaration, I simply capitalize every letter in the constant name. This naming style really stands out. Doing so creates self-documenting code. Instead, look at the following self-documenting variable names.
In this section, you will learn how to receive input from users through the scanf function. The scanf function is another built in function provided by the standard input output library ; it reads standard input from the keyboard and stores it in previously declared variables.
It takes two arguments as demonstrated next. You can use the same conversion specifiers as discussed in Table 2. Its output is shown in Figure 2. The first notable line of code prompts the user to enter a number. The next line of code uses the scanf function to receive input from the user.
Essentially, the address operator contains a pointer to the location in memory where your variable is located. For now, just know that you must precede variable names with it when using the scanf function. After receiving both numbers operands from the user, I then use a print statement to display the following result. In the Adder program from the previous section, I used a shortcut when dealing with common arithmetic: I performed my calculation in the printf function.
Although this is not required, you can use additional variables and program statements to derive the same outcome. For example, the following code is another variation of the Adder program that uses additional program statements to achieve the same result. For example, you would not say the following: iResult equals iOperand1 plus iOperand2.
That is incorrectly stated. Instead you would say: iResult gets the value of iOperand1 plus iOperand2. Operator precedence in C is shown in Table 2. Take another look at the same implementation in C —this time without using parentheses to dictate the correct order of operations. All of the C code needed to create the Profit Wiz program is demonstrated next.
Identify data types with a prefix. Use upper- and lowercase letters appropriately. Give variables meaningful names. Create a program that uses the same formula above to output the result; this time, however, prompt the user for the values a , b, x , and y. Use appropriate variable names and naming conventions. Create a program that prompts a user for her name. Conditions often called program control, decisions, or expressions allow you to make decisions about program direction.
Learning how to use and build conditions in your program code will give you a more fluid and interactive program. Along the way, I will introduce essential beginning computer science theories that will help you learn the fundamental concepts of algorithm analysis and Boolean algebra. Reviewing these topics will provide you with the necessary background for understanding conditional program control.
In fact, many computer science professors say that computer science is really the analysis of algorithms. An algorithm is a finite step-by-step process for solving a problem that begins with a problem statement. It is this problem statement that programmers use to formulate an algorithm for solving the problem. Keep in mind, the process of building algorithms and algorithm analysis occurs before any program code has been written.
To get a visual picture of algorithms, programmers and analysts commonly use one of two tools to demonstrate program flow the algorithm. In the next few sections, I will show you how to build and use two algorithm tools: pseudo code and flowcharts. Expressions and Conditional Operators Conditional operators are a key factor when building and evaluating expressions in pseudo code, flowcharts, or any programming language.
Not all programming languages, however, use the same conditional operators, so it is important to note what operators C uses. Table 3. Programmers use pseudo code as a shorthand notation for demonstrating what an algorithm looks like, but not necessarily what the program code will look like. Once the pseudo code has been written down you can easily transform pseudo code to any programming language.
Allow a customer to deposit or withdraw money from a bank account, and if a user elects to withdraw funds, ensure that sufficient monies exist.
Pseudo code for this problem statement might look like the following. This nested condition is said to belong to its parent condition, such that the nested condition will never be evaluated unless one of the parent conditional requirements is met. In this case, the action must not equal the deposit for the nested condition to be evaluated.
Also notice that for each algorithm implemented with pseudo code, I use a standard form of indentation to improve the readability. Take a look at the same pseudo code; this time without the use of indentation.
Without indentation in your pseudo code or actual program code, it is extremely difficult to pinpoint nested conditions. In the next section, you will learn how to implement the same algorithms, shown previously, with flowcharts. Flowcharts Popular among computing analysts, flowcharts use graphical symbols to depict an algorithm or program flow.
To demonstrate flowchart techniques, take another look at the AC algorithm used in the previous section. The flowchart in Figure 3. If the expression evaluates to true, program flow moves to the right, processes a statement, and then terminates.
If the expression evaluates to false, program flow moves to the left, processes a different statement, and then terminates. However, there are times when you will not care if an expression evaluates to false. For example, take a look at the following algorithm implemented in pseudo code. I could demonstrate the same algorithm using a flowchart, as shown in Figure 3. You can still use flowcharts to depict more complicated decisions, such as nested conditions, but you must pay closer attention to program flow.
To demonstrate, take another look at the pseudo code used earlier to depict a sample banking process. You can see in Figure 3. But how do you know which diamond represents a nested condition? Good question. When looking at flowcharts, it can be difficult to see nested conditions at first, but remember that anything process or condition after the first diamond symbol condition actually belongs to that condition and therefore is nested inside it.
To demonstrate, take another look at the AC algorithm in pseudo code form. The expression must be enclosed in parentheses. Also note that there is no end if statement in C. If you process more than one statement inside your conditions, you must enclose the multiple statements in braces, as shown next. For example, I can change the placement of braces in the preceding code without affecting the outcome, as demonstrated next.
Simply choose a style of brace placement that works for you and stick with it. From abstract to implementation, take a look at Figure 3. All the code needed to implement Figure 3. This is acceptable—you can use variables in your if structures as long as you are comparing apples to apples and oranges to oranges. To assume this, I hard coded the initial balance into the variable declaration as the following code demonstrates.
Sample output from the banking system can be seen in Figure 3. Essentially, I do this to minimize confusion about the purpose of many ending braces, which can litter even a simple program. Boolean Algebra Boolean algebra is named after George Boole, a mathematician in the nineteenth century.
Boole developed his own branch of logic containing the values true and false and the operators and, or, and not to manipulate the values. As the subsequent sections will discuss, Boolean algebra commonly uses three operators and, or, and not to manipulate two values true and false. Each side of the condition must be true for the entire condition to be true. Take the following expression, for example. The first condition evaluates to true and so does the second condition, which generates a true result for the entire expression.
Study Table 3. Truth tables allow you to see all possible scenarios in an expression containing compound conditions. The truth table in Table 3. As you can see, there is only one possible combination for the and operator to generate a true result: when both sides of the condition are true.
The or operator, however, differs in that it only requires one side of the compound condition to be true for the entire expression to be true. Take the following compound condition, for example.
To demonstrate all possible scenarios for the or operator, study the truth table in Table 3. TABLE 3. The not operator is easily understood at first, but can certainly be a bit confusing when programmed in compound conditions. For example, the following expression uses the not operator in a compound condition. In other words, the opposite of true is false.
Take a look at Table 3. TAB LE 3. TIP C evaluates all non-zero values as true and all zero values as false. Before you take that plunge, however, I must discuss order of operations for a moment. Order of operations becomes extremely important when dealing with compound conditions in Boolean algebra or with implementation in any programming language. To dictate order of operations, use parentheses to build clarification into your compound conditions. Like Boolean algebra, compound if conditions in C commonly use the operators and and or, as demonstrated in Table 3.
Both sides of the operator must evaluate to true before the entire expression becomes true. If either side of the condition is true, the whole expression results in true. Lots of logic errors creep into code when programmers begin adding statements to single line if bodies and forget to add the braces, which THEN are required. So what does this mean to you or me?
Take the following C program, for example. You may guess that you would receive Incorrect response. The following compound conditions are not valid. Take another look at the correct version of this compound condition, shown next.
This compound expression uses the or operator to evaluate two separate conditions. If either of the conditions results in true, I know that the user has entered a number that is not between one and Specifically, the isdigit function can be used to verify that the user has entered either digits or non-digit characters.
Moreover, the isdigit function returns true if its passed-in value evaluates to a digit, and false 0 if not. As shown next, the isdigit function takes one parameter. Remember to include the library in your program when using the isdigit function, as demonstrated next. If the user enters, for example, the letter a, the isdigit returns a zero false.
But if the user enters the number 7, then isdigit returns a true value. Essentially, the preceding program uses the isdigit function a bit backward to verify nondigit data. Take a look at the next program, which uses isdigit in a more conventional manner. This means that I do not need to surround my expression in parentheses. You can do this in any if condition, as long as the expression or function returns a true or false Boolean value.
In this case, isdigit does return true or false, which is sufficient for the C if condition. For example, if the user enters a 7, which I pass to isdigit —isdigit returns a true value that satisfies the condition. Take another look at the condition part of the preceding program to ensure that you grasp this concept. The following sample code demonstrates how the switch structure is built. In this example, the variable x is evaluated in each case structure following the switch statement.
But, how many case statements must you use? Simply answered, the number of case statements you decide to use depends on how many possibilities your switch variable contains.
When I selected category 1, I should have only been given one response—not four. This bug occurred because after the appropriate case statement is matched to the switch variable, the switch structure continues processing each case statement thereafter. This problem is easily solved with the break keyword, as demonstrated next. The switch structure also comes with a default block, which can be used to catch any input that does not match the case statements.
The following code block demonstrates the default switch section. Moreover, you can evaluate like data with multiple case structures on a single line, as shown next.
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